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生活志
Bring order to complexity!

Homework of Principles of Economics

6/30/2014

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QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

Give three examples of important trade-offs that you face in your life.

  1. When I choose which kind of drinks to buy in a cafe, I give up black coffee for latte.
  2. When I choose how to spend my afternoon, I give up several hours of reading books for doing exercises in the fitness centre.
  3. When I choose which subject to study today, I give up math for economics.

What is the opportunity cost of seeing a movie?

The amount of money to pay for the ticket price, the things that could be done during the time and other movies that could be watched.

Water is necessary for life. Is the marginal benefit of a glass of water large or small?

I think that depends on how much water one already have. For an extremely thirsty man it is large while for a man who does not lack water it is small.

Why should policymakers think about incentives?

If a policy changes incentives, it will cause people to alter their behavior because they respond to incenttives. Policy can change people's behavior and have some indirect effects which are sometimes not obvious.

Why isn't trade among countries like a game with some winners and some losers?

Trade allows a group of people focus on what they are best at and then let them produce as much as possible to benefit all who are involved in a trade. Each country is gifted with particular conditions for example while some countries have the advantage of soil allowing them to produce more food others have more mineral resources. I think trade is a fair way for countries to help each other.

What does the "invisible hand" of the marketplace do?

It leads people to make self-serving decisions after looking at the prices to reach an outcome that maximize the welfare of society as whole.

Explain the two main causes of market failure and give an example of each.

  • Externality - A trade may create costs or benefits for third parties. When externalities are not considered in a trade because neither sellers or buyers can be harmed or benefit from them, it is not the overall cost and benefit that is driving the trade but just part of them. Thus, the market is not going after the maximized welfare. As an example of positive externality, when a company builds a park for the government, the money it receives is lower than the value of the park and it caused less company being willing to build parks. A negative externality is that, the money that a company spends on building a chemical factory can be lower than the actual cost of it if you count in the environment cost and it results in more company willing to build them.
  • Market Power - It refers to the power to change prices of a group of buyers or sellers. When there is no competitor in the market, a seller or buyer will be relied on by the opposite side. Then the price will not be determined by both sides. For example, in China eletirc power supply is controlled by government resulting in that only government can decide the price of electricity.

Why is productivity important?

Because productivity is the primary determinant of living standards.

What is inflation and what causes it?

Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy. It is the growth in the quantity of money that causes inflation.

How are inflation and unemployment realted in the short run?

Growth in the quantity of money causes inflation and growth of spending ability. Thus demand increases and unemployment decreases. In a word, in the short run you can defeat unemployment by inflation.

PROBLEMS AND APPLICATIONS

1. Describe some of the trade-offs faced by each of the following individuals:

a. Janice, who is deciding which courses to take next semester.

When Janice choose to take subject set A which include a, b and c, she gives up the subjects that don't belong to set A.

b. The CEO of a hospital, who is trying to decide whether to build a neonatal intensive care facility.

The CEO has two choice: spend the resources on building this facility or spend the resources on something else. Apparently if he/she choose the former he/she has to give up the latter and vice versa.

c. Harold and Kumar, who are trying to decide what to do this weekend.

The things that Harold and Kumar will do this weekend make up set A. By making this decision, they have to give anything that doesn't belong to set A.

d. A city councilman, who is trying to decide how much to spend on a downtown parking garage.

By adding a sum of money to the spending of garage he give up using the money to do other things. So this is a trade-off between the garage or other things where a sum of money is going to be spent. 

2. You are trying to decide whether to take a vacation. Most of the costs of the vacation (airfare, hotel and forgone wages) are measured in dollars, but the benefits of the vacation are psychological. How can you compare the benefits to the costs?

It is a trade-off between psychological enjoyment and pecuniary cost. First I should focus on the marginal cost and benefit. Second I can converse the psychological enjoyment into pecuniary benefit by thinking about how much should I pay to gain such enjoyment if I don't take the vacation and compare it with the cost.

3. You have an economics exam tomorrow and you are planning to study tonight. Your best friend calls to tell you that he has an extra ticket to a concert tonight that he will give to you (for free). What is the true cost of attending the concert? Now, suppose that you are scheduled to work tonight at your part-time job. What is the true cost of attending the concert in this case? Explain.

Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up for it.

  • In the first case, the cost of attending the concert is what I give up for it, in other words, the time that was planned to be spent on studying. Furthermore, I give up the d-value between the score I would get if I used the concert time to study and the score I actually get after I attend the concert.
  • In the second case, the cost of attending the concert is what I give up for it, in other words, the work I should do if I used to concert time to work. Calculating in dollars, that is the value of the work I should have done with the concert time.

4. You win $100 in a basketball pool. You have a choice between spending the money now or putting it away for a year in a bank account that pays 5 percent interest. What is the opportunity cost of spending the $100 now?

The opportunity cost is the benefit of another choice which, in this case, is putting it in a bank account to gain 5 percent interest after a year. So the benefit of putting it in a bank account is $5 a year later and it is the opportunity cost of spending the $100 now.

5. The company that you manage has invested $5 million in developing a new product, but the development is not quite finished. At a recent meeting, your salespeople report that the introduction of competing products has reduced the expected sales of your new product to $3 million. If it would cost $1 million to finish development and make the product, should you go ahead and do so? What is the most that you should pay to complete development?

Now I have two choices.
If I stick to the old plan, then I will lose $2 million.
If I finish development and make the product with the extra $1 million, when I will lose $3 million.
The opportunity cost of the former is the benefit of the latter which is the time it saves. Suppose during the time saved by the latter plan, the company can make a profit A. 
Considering the latter plan as an adjustment to the former then there is a marginal cost and benefit. The marginal cost is the extra $1 million and the marginal benefit is profit A. By comparing A and $1 million I can make the decision.
If A is less than $1 million then the marginal benefit is smaller than the marginal, I will choose to stick to the old plan. If A is more than $1 million, I will do the adjustment.

6. Three managers of the Magic Potion Company are discussing a possible increase in production. Each suggests a way to make this decision.
  • HARRY: We should examine whether one company's productivity - gallons of potion per worker - would rise or fall.
  • RON: We should examine whether our average cost - cost per worker - would rise or fall.
  • HERMIONE: We should examine whether the extra revenue from selling the additional potion would be greater or smaller than the extra costs.
Who do you think is right? Why?


The key to this question is to decide which index can best represent production.
Production = productivity × number of workers 
Productivity is able to show production if and only if the number of workers is fixed.
Production = number of workers × average cost × production out of per unit of cost
Average cost is able to show production if and only if the number of workers and production out of per unit of cost are fixed.
In regards of Hermione's idea, increase in income minus increase in outcome is the increase in net profit. The net profit cannot represent production.

7. The Social Security system provides income for people over age 65. If a recipient of Social Security decides to work and earn some income, the amount he or she receives in Social Security benefits is typically reduced.
  • a. How does the provision of Social Security affect people's incentive to save while working?
  • b. How does the reduction in benefits associated with higher earnings affect people's incentive to work past age 65?

People after 65 are faced with a trade-off between earning income plus reduced Social Security benefits and regular Social Security benefits only. For people who cannot earn much money by working it is very likely that they choose not to work and rely on Social Security benefits exclusively. Thus for most people the total income will not be quite satisfied, incenting them to save while working. However for people with higher earnings, the decrease in Social Security benefits is much smaller than the earnings. If one makes decision only based on money profit, he/she will chooses to work because the marginal benefit outweighs the marginal cost.

8. A recent bill reforming the government's anti-poverty programs limited many welfare recipients to only 2 years of benefits.
  • a. How does this change affect the incentives for working?
  • b. How might this change represent a trade-off between equity and efficiency?

a. This change reduces the benefit of not working thus raises the opportunity cost. He who isn't working is faced with two choices: work and not work. The opportunity cost of the former is two years of welfare benefits while that of the latter is constant wages. In this way, the change stimulates people to choose to work.
b. Equity means to allocate resources to all citizens equally while efficiency means to improve productivity. Apparently encouraging people to work can improve efficiency, but limiting welfare benefits to two years reduces the resources allocated to those who are out of work. Therefore the change, in pursue of efficiency, give up some equity.

9. Your roommate is a better cook than you are, but you can clean more quickly than your roommate can. If your roommate did all of the cooking and you did all of the cleaning, would your chores take you more or less time than if you divided each task evenly? Give a similar example of how specialization and trade can make two countries both better off.

Since my roommate is a better cook than I am, I can assume that it takes my roommate 10 mins to cook while it takes me 15 mins. Since I can clean more quickly than my roommate can, I can assume that it takes me 2 mins to clean while it takes my roommate 5 mins. I also assume that if workload doubles then the time doubles too.

  • If my roommate did all of the cooking and I did all of the cleaning, then the duration would be 10×2 + 2×2 = 24 mins.
  • If we divided each task evenly, then the duration would be 15 + 2 + 10 + 5 = 32 mins.

So if my roommate did all of the cooking and I did all of the cleaning, our chores would take us less time (24 mins) than if we divided each task evenly (32 mins).

Suppose products X and Y is needed by every country and between country A and B, A is better at producing X while B is better at producing Y. Producing X costs A $100 per unit and B $150 per unit while producing Y costs A $150 per unit and B $100 per unit. Both countries need one unit of X and one unit of Y now. 

  • If A produces two units of X, B produces two units of Y and A trades one unit of X with B for one unit of Y, then the total costs of the two countries will be the cost of A producing two units of X plus B producing two units of Y equals to $400.
  • If they produce what they need separately, then the total costs will be the cost of A producing one unit of X and one unit of Y plus B doing the same equals to $500.

For country A, without specialization and trade, the cost of producing one unit of X and one unit of Y is $250; however, with specialization and trade, it produces two units of X which costs $200 then give one unit of X to get one unit of Y, achieving the same result. The price of Y may rise about its cost in country B which is $100, but as long as it is below the cost in country A which is $150, the trade makes each countries better off. For B it is all the same.

10. Suppose the United States adopted central planning for its economy, and you became the chief planner. Among the millions of decisions that you need to make for next year are how many compact discs to produce, what artists to record, and who should receive the discs.
  • a. To make these decisions intelligently, what information would you need about the compact disc industry? What information would you need about each of the people in the United States?
  • b. How would your decisions about CDs affect some of your other decisions, such as how many CD players to make or cassette tapes to produce? How might some of your other decisions about the economy change your views about CDs?

My goal is to make the benefit outweigh the opportunity cost. Suppose I am going to produce CD in quantity A. The opportunity cost is the value of other products that can be made with the resources given to the production of CD, which, I guess, can be calculated in the prices of resources and therefore is the monetary cost - suppose it is X. The benefit is the value of product measured in the price of CDs and therefore is the monetary benefit - suppose it is Y.
Then my goal is to make sure that Y is no less than X.

Y = quantity produced × average price
X = quantity produced × average cost
Net Profit = quantity produced × (average price - average cost)

Thus, I need to know the average price and cost. Assume that the average cost is fixed as m. Price, however, changes with the quantity produced - the more we produced, the lower the price. Assume the price is a univariate function of quantity, then the Net Profit is also a univariate function of quantity. 

Net Profit =- f(x) (x represents the quantity produced)

I need to draw a graph of f(x) and find the peak in order to know how many CDs to produce. To draw the graph I can use the data of last few years.

CONFUSED!

11. Nations with corrupt police and court systems typically have lower standards of living than nations with less corruption. Why might that be the case?

Knowing that living standard is determined by productivity, this question can be simplified into "Why do corrupt police and court systems reduce productivity?"

Police and court work to enforce property rights, which is key to the smooth running of market. If a country's police and court systems are corrupt, then benefit of working reduced because it is possible to be lost in many ways. This serves as a negative incentive that prevent people from working and thus reduces productivity.

In a nutshell, nations with corrupt police and court systems typically have lower standards of living than nations with less corruption because corrupt police and court systems discourage people from working so that productivity is reduced.

12. Explain whether each of the following government activities is motivated by a concern about equity or a concern about efficiency, discuss the type of market failure involved.
a. providing unemployment insurances
b. regulating electrical utilities
c. evaluating mergers of American companies
d. operating public health clinics
e. providing national defense
f. instituting fines for firms who pollute

a. It is motivated by a concern about equity and no market failure is involved.
b. It is motivated by a concern about equity and involves positive externality.
c. It is motivated by a concern about efficiency and involves market power.
d. It is motivated by a concern about equity and involves positive externality.
e. It is motivated by a concern about efficiency and involves positive externality.
f.  It is motivated by a concern about efficiency and involves negative externality.

13. Discuss each of the following statements from the standpoints of equity and efficiency.
a. "Everyone in society should be guaranteed the best healthcare possible."
b. "When workers are laid off, they should be able to collect unemployment benefits until they find a new job."

a.
  • EQUITY - True. Healthcare, as a kind of economic prosperity, should be distributed fairly among the members of society. Since everyone should receive the same, everyone is receiving the best.
  • EFFICIENCY - False. If people who can produce more live as long as those who produce less, the general productivity cannot be increased. Moreover, it reduces the opportunity cost of not working, also serving no good as to improve productivity.

b. 
  • EQUITY - True. No matter people are working or not, they should receive benefits of economic prosperity.
  • EFFICIENCY - False. Giving the unemployed money reduces the opportunity cost of not working, serving no good as to improve productivity.

14. In what ways is your standard of living different from that of your parents or grandparents when they were your age? Why have these changes occurred?

My standard of living is much higher than that of my parents or grandparents when they were my age.
Changes have occurred because productivity have been improving over the generations.

15. Suppose Americans decide to save more of their incomes. If banks lend this extra saving to businesses, which use the funds to build new factories, how might this lead to faster growth in productivity? Who do you suppose benefits from the higher productivity? Is society getting a free lunch?

Suppose the extra saving is $100 and deposit interest rate is 1%; thus one year later Americans can get $101.
Suppose the loan interest rate is 2%; thus one year later businesses should pay back $102.
The businesses use $100 to build new factories. Suppose after a year of use it is then worth $90 and during the year, the factories bring an extra production which worth $50 on a cost of $30. After a year, the businesses make a net profit of 90+20-102= $8. The productivity grows because of the extra production of $50.
From the standpoints of Americans, although they gain $1 after a year of saving, they spent $50 on purchasing the extra products. It is not a free lunch because the purchasing power shrinks.

16. Imagine that you are a policymaker trying to decide whether to reduce the rate of inflation. To make an intelligent decision,  what would you need to know about inflation, unemployment, and the trade-off between them?

If I decrease the rate of inflation by releasing less money to the society, the purchasing power will decrease; then demand decreases and unemployment increases.
If I decrease the rate of inflation by lowering the cost like lowering the loan interest rate, the quantity produced will increase to satisfy more need at a lower price. Because the demand increase, unemployment will decrease.

CONFUSED! There should be a trade-off between inflation and unemployment, but here it seems okay to reduce both inflation and unemployment by lowering the cost. What's wrong?

17. Look at a newspaper or at the website http://www.economist.com to find three stories about the economy that have been in the news lately. For each story, identify one (or more) of the Ten Principles of Economics discussed in this chapter that is relevant and explain how it is relevant. Also, for each story, look through this book's Contents and try to find a chapter that might shed light on the news event.

I will do it in the New forum.
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Quick Quiz in Principles of Economics 1

6/30/2014

1 Comment

 
List and briefly explain the four principles of individual decision making.

1. People face trade-offs.

When you choose something, your give up something else in the mean time.
People face trade-offs because to get one thing that they like, they usually have to give up another thing they like.

2. The cost of something is what you give up for it.

The thing that you give up when choosing something is defined as the cost of the latter.
The cost of something is what you give up to get it, not just in terms of monetary costs but all opportunity costs.

3. Rational people think at the margin.

Rational people make plan and adjust it by comparing the marginal benefit and marginal cost.
Rational people think at the margin by taking an action if and only if the marginal benefit exceeds the marginal cost.

4. People respond to incentives.

If you want to affect people, you can change something else and make them respond to it.
People respond to incentives because they choose activities by comparing benefits to costs; therefore, a change in these benefits or costs may cause their behavior to change.

List and briefly explain the three principles concerning people's economics interactions.

5. Trade can make everyone better off.

Trade allows specialization which lowers the cost.
Trade can make everyone better off because it allows countries to specialize in what they do best and to enjoy a wider variety of goods and services.

6. Market are usually a good way to organize economic activity.

Market can adjust itself.
Market are usually a good way to organize economic activity because the invisible hand leads markets to desirable outcomes.

7. Government sometimes can improve market outcomes.

We need government to enforce the rules and prevent market failure.
Government can sometimes improve market outcomes because markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently due to an externality or market power.

List and briefly explain the three principles that describe how the economy as a whole works.

8. A country's standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services.

Productivity determined living standards of a country.
A country's standard of living depends largely on the productivity of its workers, which in turn depends on the education of its workers and the access its workers have to the necessary tools and technology.

9. Prices rise when the government prints too much money.

Overall increase of prices is caused by growth in the quantity of money.
Prices rise when the government prints too much money because more money in circulation reduces the value of money, causing inflation.

10. Society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment.

Inflation results in more hiring in a year or two.
Society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment that is only temporary. Policymakers have some short-term ability to exploit this relationship using various policy instruments.

Green - questions
White - my answers
Red - given answers
1 Comment

疑惑 2

6/29/2014

4 Comments

 
因為中國的土地歸全體人民所有,所以全體人民是地主。
因為國家機器代理地主運作土地,所謂國家機器是地主的家丁。
因為地主太龐大,所以作為個人是感受不到實權的。
公務員放在家丁集體里面,他們是國家機器的維護者。

不占有生產資料的人是勞動者。勞動者用勞動向資本家或地主交換工資。
占有生產資料的人是資本家。資本家通過資本和勞動的組合生產商品,獲得利潤。

現在模擬一下工資的談判過程。
图片
假設,雇傭者的期望起點是最低生活需要,勞動者的期望起點高于最低生活需要;舉行談判的成本為零。

談判開始,雙方的期望工資不同,而談判趨于達成共識的方向進行。為使二者達到一致,可以是勞動者的期望降低,雇傭者的期望升高,或者兩個過程同時進行。

談判過程中,勞動者有兩個選擇,降低期望工資和放棄談判。
不對不對!重新來!
图片
問題是……選擇建立在標價的基礎上,那么實際工資取決于勞動者的期望還是雇傭者的呢?
不對不對,要把勞動看作一種商品,重新來。
图片
還是不對。
在最初的假設中,100 元是勞動者在生產過程中的最低生存所需,既然四個勞動者的成本相同,那么他們的生產力應該相同。第三種情況違反了這個假設,因為四人要降低自己的價格來爭取雇傭者,能夠接受最低價格的人才能交換。
如果 100 元已經是最低生存所需了,再降低一點,都不能生存不是嗎?
嚴格來說,這種情況下勞動者是不能夠降價的,只能放棄交易。

供應在先還是需求在先呢?
為什么會有交換呢?
供應方能承受的最低價格和需求方能承受的最高價格是由什么決定的呢?
4 Comments

《原理》第一章第一節

6/28/2014

0 Comments

 
商品的交換價值取決于相對勞動量而非工資。

Adam Smith 認為「價值分為使用價值和交換價值,但使用價值高的東西經常交換價值很低,反之亦然。水和空氣很有用,可是正常情況下不能用來交易,黃金則正好相反。」

實用性不是商品交換價值的量度,但商品若是毫無用處,其交換價值也無從談起。

在有實用性的前提下,商品的交換價值源于其稀有性和生產所需的勞動量。

有些商品的價值只由稀有性所決定。它們的總量不能通過批量生產來增加,如某些雕塑、畫作、稀少的書和硬幣等。它們的價值與勞動量無甚關聯,并隨著潛在買家的興趣和財富的變化而變化。

不過,這些商品非常少。市場中大部分商品是可以批量生產,并不受地理因素的制約的,所需勞動力也容易獲得。

當我們談論商品的交換價值及其定價原理時,我們是在談論那些可以批量生產并且只受競爭約束的商品。

早期社會形態中,商品的交換價值幾乎完全取決于相對勞動量。

Adam Smith 認為「價值等于獲取難度,亦即可為購買者省下的獲取難度。」「最早的交換材料是勞動。在資本積累和土地占有的行為出現之前,交換物品依照的是獲取所需勞動量的比例。打個比方,如果在一個獵人部落中,獲得一只海貍所需勞動量是獲得一頭鹿所需勞動量的兩倍,那么一只海貍應該可以交換兩頭鹿。花兩小時生產的商品的價值是花一小時生產的商品的兩倍,花兩天生產的商品的價值是花一天生產的商品的兩倍。」

That this is really the foundation of the exchangeable value of all things, excepting those which cannot be increased by human industry, is a doctrine of the utmost importance in political economy; for from no source do so many errors, and so much difference of opinion in that science proceed, as from the vague ideas which are attached to the word value.

如果勞動量決定交換價值,那么勞動量的增加使得交換價值增加,勞動量的減少使得交換價值減少。

Adam Smith 還提出另外一個理論:交換價值取決于商品在市場上的價格。打個比方,一個人的勞動效率加倍,那么他在相同的勞動量下可生產出兩倍于別人的商品,他的交換所得因而是別人的兩倍。

如果所得與商品成正相關,那么生產商品所用的勞動量與商品可以交換的勞動量應該相等。事實卻非如此,因為前者是常量而后者是多因素變量。Adam Smith 為了確定不斷變化的商品價值,引入了可交換勞動量作為中間量,但它也是一個變量,比貴金屬好不了多少。


金銀的產量固然會因新礦的發現、舊礦的折舊和開采技術的進步而變動,但是糧食產量不僅會因類似的因素產生變動,還會受到貿易保護主義和人口等的影響。勞動的價值也是可變的,和其他東西一樣,會隨著供需關系變化,還會受到其他生活必需品的價格的影響。

如果勞動者被要求加班生產出兩倍的商品,很有可能是拿不到補償工資的,即酬勞會低于基本生活所需。若以勞動量來度量商品價值,則這種情況下商品價值應該翻倍;若以勞動報酬來度量商品價值,則其無甚變動。

時間、人數和環境條件相同的情況下,美國和波蘭的勞動者生產的糧食遠多于英國。假設物資價格相同,那么三國勞動者的工資是和生產工具正相關的嗎?

商品的生產成本降低不能使勞動者的購買能力提升。市場競爭和人口增長將會依據生活資料價格來調整工資水平。

這與 Adam Smith 說的「勞動的價值恒定。勞動是度量商品價值的唯一標準。」相悖。但他還說過,「相對勞動量為商品的交換提供依據。」換句話說,是商品量而不是勞動者的收入決定了勞動的價值。
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《原理》(前言)

6/28/2014

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前言

土地產品分配給三個階級:地主(土地的所有者)、資本家(土地以外的生產資料的所有者)和勞動者。

地主獲得租金,資本家獲得利潤,勞動者獲得工資,但在不同形態的社會中,分配比例往往不同,主要取決于土地的肥沃程度、資本積累的程度、人口和農業生產力(勞動者的技能和工具的質量)。

確定分配方法是政治經濟學的主要問題。雖然此門學科被眾多著作所討論,但它們在租金、利潤和工資的自然規律方面并不能令人滿意。

1815 年,Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent 和 Essay on the Application of Capital to Land 揭示了真正的租金的原理——若要明白資本積累對利潤和工資的影響,或者租金對于不同階級的影響,這是必須要先了解的知識。Adam Smith 研究的許多原理只能在租金被完全討論之后才能被確認。

本書的作者認為自己有資格發表關于利潤、工資和稅收法案的觀點。若其正確,則進一步的探索可交予他人完成。

作者認為有必要用一些篇幅來討論 Adam Smith 和 M. Say 的著作,盡管在觀點上有所分歧,但他對這兩位大家的敬重之情不應被懷疑。
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疑惑

6/27/2014

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最初,沒有人擁有任何事物。
假設人都像我一樣,希望有豐富的生活資源,并且這個欲望隨著已有的增長而無限增長。
那么,由于人人都有占有欲,資源成為稀缺物。

假設最初,每個人擁有的生產資料是均等的,但是生產力不同。
那么,人們的生活資料不再是均等的。

于是,一部分人所擁有的生活資料多于所需要的,一部分人則是少于所需。
假設,前者用剩余生活資料向后者交換生產資料。
那么,生產力強的人,生產資料越來越多,生產力弱的人,生產資料越來越少。
假設,生產力和生產資料都可以繼承給下一代。
那么,會逐漸形成絕大多數生產資料為少數人所有,其他人需要向這部分人租借生產資料的局面。
前者成為地主,后者成為平民。

為了保護私產,地主階級建立了社會契約與用來保護契約的國家機器。
將生產生活資料總量稱為財富。
假設,隨著社會財富的增加,社會分工細化,而細化的社會分工進一步促進生產力的提高。
那么,國家可以發展到我所知道的形態。
因此,上述假設暫時可以接受。

國家的建立者是早期地主階級,社會契約適用於社會全體。
由此假設,依照契約,非地主階級有可能成為地主階級。

把國家看作個體,在國際上也會發生類似的過程。

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后來沒有寫下去,暫且發出來,希望日后能想清楚。
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經濟表的一種模型(譯自維基百科)

6/25/2014

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  1. 地主租地給農民,農民產出 1500 單位食物。農民留 600 單位食物給自己、家畜以及雇傭工人吃,以每單位食物一美元的價格售出 900 單位,得到 900 美元,其中 300 美元(150 美元自用,150 美元給地主)用來向商人和工匠購買非農業產品(衣服、日用品等)。這個過程產生凈利潤 600 美元。
  2. 工匠產出 750 單位手工產品。為了達到該產量,他需要 300 單位食物和 150 單位外國商品。他還需要 150 單位食物和 150 單位手工產品來支持一年的生活。于是,工匠一共需要 450 單位食物、150 單位手工產品和 150 單位外國商品。他用了 450 美元向農品購買食物,150 美元向商人購買商品,并售出 600 單位手工產品,獲得 600 美元。獲得的 600 美元用來購買第二年所需的原材料,因此,工匠沒有凈利潤。
  3. 地主是純粹的消費者,即沒有任何產出。他的作用在于對作為地租的 600 美元的重新分配。在市場中,地主用 300 美元向農民購買食物,300 美元向工匠購買手工產品。地主的消費欲望讓他將地租花在食物和產品上,從而為其他階級帶來收入。
  4. 商人以食品交換外國商品。他用工匠支付的 150 美元在市場上購買食物,然后到外國用食物來交換更多的商品。
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英法的重商主義政策(譯自維基百科)

6/25/2014

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重商主義是現代歐洲早期的主導經濟觀念,為多數國家所信奉和執行。英國和法國是該理念的中心地,頒布了許多重商主義的政策。

法國

十六世紀早期,重商主義萌芽于王室成為制定法國政策的主要力量不久之后。1539 年,一項法令禁止了從西班牙與法蘭德斯部分地區進口羊毛商品的行為。第二年,就金條的出口發布了一系列限制規定。

接著,十六世紀中更多的貿易保護主義方案被提出。法國重商主義的高度與 Jean-Baptiste Colbert 密切相關——于十七世紀就任財政部長長達 22 年,其影響力之大,使得法國重商主義有時也被稱作 Colbertism。在 Colbert 的治理下,法國政府將提高出口量作為經濟目標。法國開始執行限制進口、鼓勵出口的貿易保護主義政策。以同行會和專營形式整頓生產業,并用上千條邊緣條例規定了產品應有的差異性。

為了鼓勵生產,外國手工業者被引進。Colbert 降低了國內交易的門檻與稅費,建立起巨大的道路和運河網絡。Colbert 制定的政策相當成功,并且隨著法國成為歐洲的核心力量,其工業產值和經濟總量在此期間得到了顯著增長。然而他沒能讓法國成為商業強國,英國和荷蘭保持著該領域的霸主地位。

筆記:
1. 禁止羊毛進口。
2. 限制金條出口。
3. 限制進口、鼓勵出口。
4. 建立同行會,細化分工。
5. 引進外國手工業者。
6. 降低國內交易門檻與成本。
7. 建立交通網絡。

英國

英國的重商主義于長期國會政府執政期間達到頂峰。都鐸王朝、斯圖亞特王朝與 Robert Walpole 執政期間也通過了大量重商主義政策。在英國,由于習慣法和國會的限制,政府對于國內經濟的控制遠低于歐洲大陸。

在殖民地問題上,英國重商主義的含義是政府與商人合作,致力於提高政治權力和私人財富,對抗他國競爭。政府使用商業限制、條例和補貼來保護己國商人、排擠他國商人,從而增加出口和減少進口。政府必須對抗走私——18 世紀,美國熱衷于用此法來規避與法國、西班牙和德國的商業約束。重商主義的目的在于建立貿易順差,使金銀流入倫敦。政府從關稅中得利,其他利益則進入英國商人的囊中。財政收入中一大份用于皇家海軍,其作用不僅是保護英國殖民地,還包括震懾他國殖民地,伺機爭奪權益。1664 年,皇家海軍占領新阿姆斯特丹。殖民地是英國工業的強制傾銷地,用來增加母國的財富。

英國重商主義者的爭論在于國內調控是否必要。而英國重商主義的主要表現是對交易的調控,實行大量鼓勵出口、限制進口的條例。對商品進口增稅,對出口則給予獎金,而部分原材料的出口被完全禁止。航海條例禁止外國商人參與國內商業交易。英國四處建立殖民地,一旦成功,便規定殖民地只能生產原材料,只能與英國交易。這種行為加劇了與殖民地人民間的矛盾,重商主義政策(比如禁止殖民地與他國交易,對走私的打擊等)亦成為美國獨立革命的主要導火索。


總之,重商主義政策使英國成為經濟強國。開墾國內荒地的政策具有深遠影響。重商主義者認為,只有開發一切土地和資源才能使國家力量最大化,抽干沼澤一類的項目一度得以實行。

筆記:
1. 強制殖民地成為專屬的原料產地和傾銷地。
2. 鼓勵出口,限制進口,禁止原材料出口。
3. 禁止外國商人在本國交易。
4. 開發利用本國土地和資源。
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Unit 2: Journals - Crafting an Effective Writer

6/21/2014

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Module 1 Writing Activity
NOUNS: table, tea, plant, window, wall, bookshelf, balloon, bag, cup, flag.
ADJECTIVES: clean, bright, quiet, soft, warm, relaxing, transparent, stuffed, waving, wooden.

Module 2 Writing Activity
VERBS: shine, sing, play, break, close, feed, get, smile, eat, drink.
ADVERBS: hardly, softly, angrily, happily, loudly, home, aggressively, quickly, slow, sharply.

SENTENCES
1. The flag of Brazil waves gently above me in a quiet cafe.
2. She watered the lovely plant with the clean water she just fetched from the transparent pond outside the building.
3. I am attending a well-designed course online in order to sharpen my English writing skill gradually.
4. Summer came quietly with her bright light shining through the big window, sprinkled on the wooden table.
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別讓恐懼迷了眼

6/20/2014

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做事還是用擅長的方式來吧。
……雖然理直氣壯地這樣說,但其實擅長的方式是老師單獨教授、布置任務的方式……

我說的是學習高數這件事。
可以用電腦之后就靜不下來自學教材了,看網上的公開課又昏昏欲睡。
與其惶恐地責備自己……什么也做不了……還不如,盡情地做喜歡的事吧。
明天去新東方上一對一的補習課(笑)。

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